Space-Based Surveillance

Reconnaissance Satellites Are A National Security Sine Qua Non

GLENN W. GOODMAN, JR.

America's first "spy" satellite, the KH-1 Corona, conducted its first reconnaissance mission in August 1960. The satellite used photographic film to record high-resolution images of the Soviet Union from space. It released canisters of exposed film in a recovery vehicle, which fell to Earth with a parachute and was retrieved so the film could be developed. 
 
 The same method was used by subsequent US photo-reconnaissance satellite types KH-2 through KH-9. The KH-1 through KH-9 (Keyhole) programs encompassed nearly 150 satellite launches between 1960 and 1972. 
 The heavily classified National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) was established in 1960 to design, build, and operate all US reconnaissance satellites. (The US government didn't publicly acknowledge its existence until 1992. Today, it falls under the Air Force.)
 
 Imagery satellites or "overhead systems"-known during the Cold War as "national technical means of verification," shortened to "national technical means"-typically operate in low Earth orbits to be closer to the areas they are reconnoitering. The strong suit of US imaging reconnaissance satellites to date has primarily been the monitoring of fixed facilities over periods of days and months to detect changes in activity or military readiness.
 
 IMAGERY AND SIGINT SATELLITES
 Space-based reconnaissance has come a long way since the KH-1 Corona. Beginning with the KH-11 Kennan/Crystal series, first launched in December 1976, US electro-optical (E-O) imaging satellites have transmitted their black and white TV picture-like imagery to a ground station in virtually real time using a relay satellite.
 
 The inability of photo-reconnaissance and subsequent E-O imaging satellites to "see" through clouds has been their biggest shortcoming. As a result, development of an all-weather, space-based imaging radar, which could use radar pulses to see through clouds, fog, haze, and darkness and generate images of the ground, was initiated in late 1976. Following a successful test of the Indigo prototype satellite in early 1982, development of the Lacrosse/Vega radar imaging satellite began in 1983. The 16-ton Lockheed Martin (Denver)-built spacecraft was first launched by the Space Shuttle Atlantis in December 1988. The NRO put several more of them in orbit through 1999 using booster rockets. In August 2000, the latest Lacrosse Onyx satellite was successfully orbited.
 
 The Lacrosse design includes a large dish radar antenna and a very long solar panel array to provide substantial electric power for the radar transmitter and produce images with high resolution-not as high as the electro-optical KH-12's but less than a meter in the latest versions of the satellite in all weather.
 
 Imagery satellites were joined in space early on by others with signals intelligence (SIGINT) payloads, operated by the NRO to support National Security Agency (NSA) collection and exploitation of intercepted message traffic and other electronic eavesdropping. In fact, the first SIGINT satellite, a device that looked like a large silver soccer ball and was called GRAB, went into low Earth orbit in May 1960 before the KH-1 Corona. It collected signals emitted by hundreds of Soviet air defense radars and retransmitted them down to ground stations for recording on magnetic tape and subsequent analysis by NSA.
 
 SIGINT antennas and receivers can intercept radio, radar, cellular telephone, and missile test telemetry signals emitted by military forces on the ground, and can thus detect, identify, and locate enemy emitters or pick up signs of vehicle movements or other hostile activities. 
 
 As microwave repeater towers replaced buried land lines in the Soviet Union for carrying telephone calls and data transmissions over long distances, NRO and NSA discovered that the best place to put a SIGINT satellite was in geo-stationary (geo-synchronous) orbit (22,300 miles up, rotating at the exact same speed as the Earth). This is because microwave transmissions can be picked up in deep space as very clear signals, while satellites in low Earth orbit travel too fast through the microwave beams. 
 
 The first of a new generation of SIGINT satellites, called Rhyolite and built by TRW, was launched in 1970. It was put in geo-synchronous orbit above the equator near Indonesia, which was a good position from which to collect signals emitted in the Soviet Union and China. The satellite retransmitted the signals without encryption directly to the Pine Gap ground station in Alice Springs, Australia, where they were encrypted and relayed by satellite, or the data tapes airlifted, to the NSA. The Rhyolite satellites were supplemented by Jumpseat SIGINT satellites launched into elliptical orbits from 1971-85 to cover the USSR's extreme northern regions. 
 
 Ground stations were added in Germany, England, and Japan, and larger, more capable SIGINT satellites targeting different types of emissions were launched over the years, with names such as Chalet/Vortex, Mercury (Advanced Vortex), Magnum/Orion, and Intruder. The billion dollar Trumpet SIGINT satellite, with an antenna reportedly 100 meters across, was launched in 1994, 1995, and 1997, and Trumpet Mentor (Advanced Orion) in 1998.
 
 The latest Advanced KH-11 Improved Crystal E-O/IR reconnaissance satellite (some call it the KH-12), built by TRW, was first launched into low Earth orbit in November 1992. At least two more were launched, in December 1995 and December 1996. Akin to the bullet-shaped Hubble Space Telescope, with a large rocket engine attached on the end for maneuvering and with wing-like solar panel arrays perpendicular instead of parallel to the spacecraft's main body, the Advanced KH-11 reportedly weighs 18 tons, including 7 to 8 tons of fuel. It features a rotating mirror that reflects images onto a primary optical telescope mirror measuring up to 150 inches in diameter. The Advanced KH-11's E-O and infrared (IR) sensors can produce sharp digital images with a resolution approaching 0.1 meters for objects on Earth hundreds of miles away. The Advanced KH-11 also carries SIGINT receivers.


The US inventory of spy satellites was reported last September to include three Advanced KH-11, two Lacrosse, and five SIGINT satellites.

Next-generation US space reconnaissance capabilities are centered around NRO's Future Imagery Architecture (FIA), a planned constellation of new E-O/IR imaging and probably radar satellites that is expected to provide huge gains in imagery intelligence for tactical warfighters. Boeing Satellite Systems, Seal Beach, CA, is developing the system.
 
 In April 2002, Air Force Undersecretary Peter Teets, who is dual-hatted as Director of the NRO, discounted news reports that the FIA program was in trouble, stating that he had reviewed Boeing's progress and that it was "on cost and on schedule." Boeing's FIA team, which won the $4.5 billion development contract in 1999, includes Hughes Electronics Corporation, Raytheon, Eastman Kodak, and Harris Corporation.
 
 The Air Force plans to begin kick-start development of (an unclassified) Space-Based Radar in Fiscal Year 2003, seeking $91 million in its R&D request. The system would offer ground moving target indicator and synthetic aperture radar capabilities from space akin to those provided today by the Air Force's 707 aircraft-mounted E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS). Space-based radar sensors could dwell for sufficient time over target areas to track moving vehicles around the clock.
 
 Manned surveillance aircraft like the E-8 are costly to man and operate year in and year out; Air Force leaders believe that space-based radar sensors, once the up-front investment to develop and deploy the satellites had been made, could provide Joint STARS-like capabilities at far lower operating costs and without risking personnel.
 In 2000, Congress killed the earlier Discoverer II space-based radar program, which sought to launch a two-satellite experimental constellation in 2003. This time, the Air Force wants to use program funding to build an operational system, rather than conduct an experimental technology program like Discover II. The hope is that the first satellites can be launched by 2010. 
 
 Reconnaissance satellites are important strategic capabilities also sought by other advanced nations around the globe, such as Israel, France, and Germany.
 
 ISRAELI SPY SATELLITES
 Israel launched a new reconnaissance satellite into low-Earth orbit on 28 May 2002. It was the OFEQ-5, built by Israel Aircraft Industries. Its predecessor, OFEQ-3, burned up last year on reentering the Earth's atmosphere after it ran out of life. OFEQ-5 is designed to operate at altitudes between 370 and 600 kilometers. 
 
 What's unique about OFEQ-5 is that it is a small, lightweight satellite, yet it carries high-resolution sensors. Its launch weight is only about 650 pounds (300 kilograms). It has a height of 2.3 meters and a 1.2-meter diameter. An IAI statement notes, "OFEQ-5's light weight allows for maximum agility over target to yield rapid image acquisition. It acquires images in swaths ahead of the satellite trajectory, beneath it, and lateral to it." OFEQ-5's projected life is about four years. Israel launched OFEQ-1, its first spy satellite, in 1988.


EUROPEAN RECONNAISSANCE SATELLITES
 France is developing a new Helios II satellite to upgrade its strategic reconnaissance capabilities. Belgium and Spain are participants in the Helios II program and Italy also may join; their own ground stations will receive optical imagery from the satellite in the future. The first Helios II satellite is scheduled to be launched in 2004 and the second in 2008. 
 
 France's two earlier-generation Helios IA and IB satellites were launched in 1995 and 1999, respectively, and had a four-year design life. Italy and Spain have been Helios I system participants.
 
 Astrium, the European space company formed by EADS and BAE Systems, is the prime contractor for the Helios I and II satellites, and Alcatel Space has supplied the their optical sensors.
 
 The 5,500-pound Helios I helped locate targets for US air strikes during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. A French Ministry of Defense official noted that, while the resolution of Helios I images (one meter) is not as good as those from US reconnaissance satellites, it was sufficient to identify major targets, such as airfields.
 
 Germany is set to acquire its first reconnaissance satellite, SAR-Lupe. It will carry an Alcatel synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which will provide high-resolution images day or night and in all weather conditions. A constellation of five satellites will be launched between 2004 and 2007. The relatively small satellite, to be built by Orbital High Technology Bremen, will weigh about 1,700 pounds (770 kilograms) and will measure 4x3x2 meters. It will operate at an altitude of about 500 kilometers and will have a 10-year life.
 
 France and Germany recently planned to sign a memorandum of understanding to exchange imagery from Helios II and SAR-Lupe, which would provide both countries access to both optical and radar imagery in the future.
 
 US EARLY-WARNING SATELLITES
 Imaging reconnaissance satellites are one key type of US space-based surveillance systems; the other is missile warning satellites. Orbiting Air Force Defense Support Program (DSP) satellites have performed the attack warning function since 1970, detecting the launch of ballistic missiles worldwide from the infrared heat of their rocket plumes. The Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS, pronounced "sibbers") is intended to be the next-generation US global missile warning and tracking system. 
 
 The Air Force is developing two separate SBIRS satellite components and a single ground segment. SBIRS High will replace the DSP satellites. It will consist of four dedicated satellites in high geo-stationary Earth orbit and sensor payloads on two other classified host satellites in highly elliptical orbits. SBIRS High will detect and report missile launches faster and more accurately than the DSP satellites and also will detect and track shorter-range missiles with greater accuracy.
 
 SBIRS Low will encompass more than 20 missile-tracking satellites in low Earth orbit. As a key element of DoD's planned National Missile Defense system, SBIRS Low satellites will perform precise mid-course tracking of ballistic missiles after they separate from their rocket boosters and will discriminate between missile reentry vehicles (warheads) and decoys. The Air Force began full-scale development of SBIRS High in 1996. Lockheed Martin Space Systems Co.-Sunnyvale (CA) is the prime contractor and systems integrator. Northrop Grumman is developing the critical infrared sensors for SBIRS High. SBIRS High will use a combination of scanning and staring IR sensors. The scanning IR sensor would sweep wide swaths of the earth to detect missile launches; once a launch was detected, the highly sensitive staring IR sensor would independently focus, or stare, at the launch location to pick up detailed information on the characteristics of the missile being launched.


Substantial cost overruns on the SBIRS High program put it at risk of cancellation this past spring under the provisions of the Nunn-McCurdy law. DoD programs whose unit costs increase by 25 percent or more must be reviewed and certified to Congress for continuation or be terminated. In early May, Pentagon acquisition chief Pete Aldridge certified the program for continued funding. Rather than restructuring the program, Aldridge directed that it be revised to meet realistic cost and performance profiles.

The first launch of a SBIRS High geo-synchronous satellite is now expected to slip by 18 to 24 months. SBIRS Low got started in August 1999, when the Air Force awarded competing industry teams led by TRW and $275 million, 38-month Program Definition and Risk Reduction contracts to Spectrum Astro. TRW's team included Raytheon, Northrop Grumman (formerly Aerojet), Motorola, Honeywell, and Ball Aerospace; Spectrum Astro's team included Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. The Air Force planned to pick a single team to conduct the next development phase by December of this year.
 
 A February 2001 General Accounting Office report concluded that the SBIRS Low program was "at high risk of not delivering the system on time or at cost or with the expected performance." Concerned by the program's cost growth, Congress subsequently slashed funding for SBIRS Low in the FY02 appropriations request. As a result, the program was restructured by DoD, with Congressional concurrence, to reduce its technical risks, corral its growing costs, and get it back on schedule.
 
 In 1 April 2002, TRW was named the prime contractor of a single combined team. Spectrum Astro will play a significant role developing the spacecraft, while Raytheon and Northrop Grumman will develop the critical sensor elements of the satellite payload under competitive subcontracts to TRW. 
 
 In July 2002, TRW will submit a proposal for the "Cycle 1" portion of the restructured program, essentially those activities leading up to the first satellite launch in FY06 and the second in FY07. The combined team will focus on the early development and deployment of initial missile-tracking satellites and evolve the system's capability incrementally as technology advances.
 
 Pat Caruana, TRW Space & Electronics' Vice President for Missile Defense and its SBIRS-Low Program Manager from 1999-2001, told ISR, "One of the [government's] desired outcomes behind the restructure of the program was to have a strong prime and then to look at the capabilities that each of the team members could bring to the table, respectively. And then determine, of those, which is the 'best of the best.' It really allows us a lot more collaboration on a broader industrial base for all the players that were previously in a competitive mode."
 
 Caruana noted, "The fact that the government is retaining competition for the payload is a clear recognition that development of the payload-including the [scanning] acquisition sensor and the track sensor, the IR focal plane array development, the cryocooling-is where much of our challenge still resides." 
 
 Asked if the payload sensors will be multi-spectral, he responded, "The key to SBIRS Low's success is the short-wave IR, the mid-wave IR, and the long-wave IR-all three of them-for various elements of the sensing both in the [threat missile's] boost and post-boost phases. Principally the long-wave IR for the colder bodies that SBIRS Low will look at once they deploy from the post-boost vehicle, but all three [wavebands] are involved to the degree that we can provide the best capability for [characterizing] those objects once they deploy."
 
 Space-based surveillance sensors, although extremely costly to design, build, and launch into orbit, remain a sine qua non for major nations with international security concerns. And fortunately for those countries that can afford reconnaissance satellites, their performance capabilities from space keep improving as technology advances.